Rome and Maximum Prices

As the end of our class approaches, we have finally made it to Rome! Rome is a very popular place full of extremely significant architecture and history. So far, we have seen the Colosseum, Pantheon, Arch of Constantine and much more. Much of this fantastic display of culture would not have been possible without a successful economy. A stable and growing economy provides the resources like capital and labor that are necessary to build such massive works like the Colosseum.

Colosseum

Pantheon

                  However, we know that the 3^rd century was a very different story for the Romans. They faced anarchy, barbarian attacks, and their imperial treasury was robbed. This lead the Romans to tax, confiscate wealth, and debase the currency. Debasement of currency occurs when the percentage of precious mental content in a coin is reduced. The Romans were merely washing a bronze coin over with silver to make it look of value. Gold coins were practically out of circulation and the market was overwhelmed with the useless silver-bronze coins.

                  As a result of this wild running inflation, the middle class was nearly eradicated. It was clear that the administration costs of “ruling the world” and a lack of proper policy was leading the Romans to bankruptcy. In an attempt to save the economy, Diocletian presented what was called the “Edict of Diocletian” or what we have recently called it, the “Edict of Maximum Prices”. This attempted to stabilize inflation by setting a price for gold, various commodities, labor, and freight. Although, it was not successful for many reasons. The Edict did not provide a price for the bronze coin which was currently overwhelming the market. It was very rigid and did not allow for prices changes due to various seasons. Lastly, the mines for precious metals like silver and gold were depleted and did not allow the price setting to take affect.

The Arch of Constantine was dedicated in the early 3^rd century. Interestingly, it is more of a collection of works from existing art. Many decorative pieces on the arch had been “recycled.” In my own speculation, I wonder if this was done because of the economic instability of the 3^rd century. Though it is important to note that Constantine ruled after Diocletian.

Arch of Constantine

                  It is very important to study economies of the past in order to reflect on current policy and learn how to best tackle problems we will face in the future. Many other countries have experienced runaway inflation in more recent years. Some examples include Greece, Russia, and Argentina. We should be careful not to solely credit these beautiful sights to unsurpassed artisans, because without a flourishing economy, these amazing artisans would have been stuck working the soils.

                  Yesterday, we biked through Appia Antica and today we visited the Vatican. Tomorrow morning, we will fly home. It has been an amazing trip!

1. H. Michell. The Edict of Diocletian: A Study of Price Fixing in the Roman Empire. Published The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Feb. 1947)  

Environmental issues in Amalfi

Currently, our group is in Roma for few days to explore this exotic and historic city. I am sad to be leaving Italy soon.

Before arriving in Roma, we visited  Amalfi to study the environmental history there. On the first night when I arrived in Amalfi, I fell in love with the coast and how unique it is for the Mediterranean Sea to locate the cities far above the shore. I’ve never seen a place quite like this!  The terrain of Amalfi has many environmental issues that affect the area. In my articles,  I have learned about some aspects of the location, such as landslides, soil erosion, fires, and the need for terrace farming. While driving up the steep, narrow streets of Amalfi, I noticed that the rock and dirt on the cliffs have been covered by massive black nets or fences. I believe the purpose of these measures is for preventing the soil from sliding down the slope suddenly since people’s homes or property could be a target. These preventive measures give people at least a bit of time to escape the danger if a landslide occurs. Landslides has been a constant problem for the Amalfi residents, due to soil erosion. This condition is mainly caused by excessive rainfall, and at times by fires which destroy the plants that anchor the soil.  Soil erosion usually occurs during the spring and autumn seasons.

What makes Amalfi stand out are the delicious lemons grown on the farms. Our group had an opportunity to visit a local lemon orchard in Amalfi. The healthy lemon tree is so vibrant! During the tour, I learned the short history of limoncello in Italy. In the 90s, the factory producing the famous lemon liqueur grew quickly in Amalfi. It was very difficult for the small business, which produced the lemon drink to survive. This situation occurred because the small business could not keep up with the demand for limoncello from consumers. The farmers we met in our tour made the point that the 95% of their income is a result of tourism. Also in one of the articles, I read that agro-tourism has encouraged farmers to increase maintenance of their terrace farming operations, in order to add to the cultural landscape of the Amalfi Coast.

During our Amalfi visit, we were able to visit the European University Centre for Cultural Heritage. This is located in a beautiful villa, where people do research to protect against major hazards of all kinds. For instance, these people study topics like protection against earthquakes, cultural protection, cultural heritage, etc. Their main focus is on natural disasters; they carry on training activities for how to protect cultural heritage in areas most likely to experience natural disasters. Since the European University Centre for Cultural Heritage villa has a panoramic view towards the Mediterranean, I learned on our tour hat wealthy American people have come here to get married. Another fun fact is that a big music festival happens in this villa. During June through September, important musicians and composers arrive here to perform a massive Ravello music festival.

Building a Better Rome

Jan 24th, 2018:
     "When in Rome, do as the Romans do". Well, what do the Romans do? Apparently they go to the town theatre for some good entertainment. However, it just so happens that their theatre wasn't just any old theatre, it's a massive Colosseum! Unfortunately when we were there, they were all out of lions, so we had to settle for lots of cool pictures and tourism plaques describing the history. Fantastic experience though, really a one-of-its-kind place.

    The article we had relating to the site visit was about the quantification of labor costs to build the buildings of ancient Rome, as well as a look at the materials they used and some techniques of construction. There was a lot of analysis on the cost-to-benefit trade-off for using certain types of rock in their cement; trying to balance the economic quagmire of local labor, transportation costs, and aesthetic value. Choosing what rock and how much rock varies the price by how far the quarry is from the city, but there might be certain rock types that aren't "good enough" for the rich, and thus being cost-effective isn't as important. One might say that the same conundrum exists today - do I want to go to the store to buy something and assess it's quality firsthand, or do I want to order online and pay the shipping costs so I can stay in my house? The Romans of antiquity faced these same problems, just in a different form.

     Touring around the Colosseum, we could see and appreciate the architecture of the place; they knew exactly how to lay the brickwork to create the arches that would hold the structural integrity of the entire building. The structure is still standing, two millennia later, and contemporary structures can't quite compare. Sure, it looks as if some giant took a couple bites out of it, but it is at least eight times as old as America, so the Romans clearly built it to last, and poured their heart and soul into constructing it. I, and billions of other tourists like me, thank them for their accomplishment.

Pompeii's History from Structural Reuse

The people of Pompeii had no idea what was to come. As ash fell upon their city, their lives were encapsulated in the volcano's ash. Decades later, archaeologists attempt to interpret the remains to understand how this economic power functioned. From the houses of officials to small inns, most of the city has been kept intact.

Pompeii had a complex economy, with bakeries, dyers, oil sellers, wine makers, and fish venders. The constant import and exports from Pompeii were substantial and helped to make the city wealthy. As the population in Pompeii grew, so did their profits. In rediscovering this ancient city, the initial clearance of the area plays an important role in determining the use of an area. Pompeii’s civilians used a similar practice to the inhabitants of Matera. As Pompeii grew and the need for specific shops increased, spaces that became obsolete would be built upon or reused for a new purpose. This reuse of buildings makes it difficult for archeologists to determine the most recent use of the area without surrounding artifacts from the time of the explosion.

The change in the area does not mean a new use however. One building, named “The Soap Factory,” had shallow tanks that’s purpose could not be identified. Archaeologists also found indications of blacksmithing in the area. At the last stage of the building's life, the space held waterproof tanks, which could be used for the same reason. In addition, they have found a ceramic vessel in the area with an unclear use. As part of the spaces previous function, little artifacts surround the vessel to indicate its purpose. The vessel bottom was sunk into the ground and held bronze remains, it is thought that the vessel was a support for this missing bronze piece. The remains also held foreign rocks and pebbles. It is still unclear the vessel's importance, however researchers can determine it was not a hearth based on the design.

In another inn, residual matter of metal was found. These specific particulates are common from blacksmith practices. As the blacksmith hammers and shapes the metal, small pieces scatter. With a magnet, researchers were able to define the location that the blacksmith’s anvil had previously been. No artifacts of blacksmithing were located, meaning the space was last used as an inn. Hand sized hearths also indicated that the area used to be a blacksmithing house.

Continuing, researchers have also found waterproof tanks. These tanks were thought to be used for an undetermined wet industry. With little artifacts we can only determine how the space was transformed. The first vessel was about 1 meter long and located in the northern most inn. With a cocciopesto floor, we know the area was well used. Cocciopesto was a utilitarian cement used in areas of heavy traffic. The tank was eventually covered by an inn's bar. 

In the Southern end, two tanks sit between the House of the Vestals and a bar complex. The larger tank is 1.6 meters deep and waterproof. The tank was leveled for the creation of a bar. The second tank was smaller and shallower. The smaller tank had a mortar covering, opposed to the previous two tank's waterproof layer. The southern tanks were filled with garbage, however we know this is not because the area was created into a dump. A large hole between the two tanks contained pozzolana, which is largely composed of lime. Lime was important because it was a key ingredient in Pompeii’s more recent architecture. The area was most likely converted to help in constructing more buildings.

Over all, the remains of Pompeii give us a deeper look into the culture of a strong economy and the way Pompeii developed over time. It is important for us to discover more about past civilizations because we can learn from their success and failure. In many ways, the situations of the past recur throughout every civilization, and being able to look at past cultures teaches us how we can adapt in the future. In conclusion, Pompeii gives great insight into how a city can leverage structural integrity to incorporate a growing population without using needed farmland through their reuse of buildings.

Large Vineyard in Pompeii

Yesterday we visited Pompeii. We saw the once buried city so well preserved. As a kid, I grew up hearing the story of Pompeii and it was truly special to see it for the first time. My article focuses on the large vineyard excavated by the University of Maryland. Unfortunately, areas that have been excavated in 1966 and 1968 were damaged due to truck passage and modern vegetation. But there were some areas still untouched and covered by the original volcanic fill. Here, archeologist were able to study and examine undisturbed cavities left by the roots and stakes of the vineyard.

They were able to map out the general planting patterns of the vineyard. They were able to study the original contours of the surface and found depressions for water. One thing they found was that the depressions were much deeper than they originally though.

Cavities of the plants and stakes were emptied and made cast of them. They found a wider range in diameter of root cavities meaning the small ones were probably cuttings set previously to replace the dead vines. Footpaths were discovered due to the perfectly preserved root and post holes on both sides of the paths. Also a few coins were found on the path. A person must have accidentally dropped them while walking along the path.

Root cavities of trees were found frequently around the vineyard. It was traditional the plant trees around the edges of the vineyard. But not too many so it wouldn’t block the sunlight. However, in this vineyard, they found a more tree root cavities than what was recommended at the time. This article had not yet identified the types of trees yet but it also was written in 1973.

In and around these cavities, they discovered carbonized roots and fruit. One odd thing is that they found a carbonized olive at the vineyard. It is not common to have olive trees in modern vineyards. But archeologist think that the olive tree might have been one of the trees the grape vines may have wedded. Vines were “trained” on a frame or post of some sort. One method that was very popular in Pompeii was were they wedded the vines to the trees. This kind of training was best suitable for areas with rich soil and hot, dry climates. A perfect description of Pompeii. They said that the volcanic area had extremely fertile soil. It was quite porous which allowed rainfall to infiltrate and pass through it.

In general, the Romans believed that the vines did better on hill slopes. It produced a higher quality wine. But vines on flatter ground level produced a larger quantity of wine and therefore is more profitable. At the vineyard, the land had a slight slope which allowed light rains to absorb easily but drain away from buildings during heavy rains.

A number of bones were discovered at the vineyard. Some were thought to be animals fleeing from the eruption. They found dogs, cats, wild boars, and horses. But some of the bones had marks from tools. This suggest that these were once meals. This gave archeologist an inside look to their diet.

In conclusion, the discovery of this vineyard gives insights on how the Romans used the ancient land and general layouts of vineyards during that time.

Photo taken by Madison

The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire

In our last and final stop in Rome, we have visited just about every tourist attraction in only two days so far. Today, we took a “casual” bike ride along the Ancient Appian Way. I say it was casual only tentatively, because we spent about 75% of the ride trying to avoid being hit by any cars. Nonetheless, once we got to a point where cars were no longer allowed to drive, we took a look at some of the tombs and funerary monuments of early Roman slaves who had been freed and we got to see some really beautiful scenery while biking along an ancient road. I found it to be very interesting to get to take a look at how some of the monuments of slaves were positioned right by huge monuments of people who held really important positions in society.

Ancient Rome was a slave society – one of only five in recorded history. Some scholars like to argue that a proper labor market, in the modern sense, did not exist before the industrial revolution and that ancient economies were not necessarily market economies but rather an alternate form of organization. However, a functioning labor market can only exist if the following two conditions are fulfilled: 1) workers must be free to change their economic activities or location and, 2) they must be paid something with their labor productivity. Based on these conditions, slaves in the American South were not considered a part of the labor market because their activities and incomes were so restricted but slaves in the Roman Empire were not subject to the same conditions.

Roman slavery was very different from modern slavery because they were allowed to participate in the labor market at free laborers, and they were even given the opportunity to move locations or economic activities. In the Roman labor market, some work was done under slavery, some done for wages, and some workers even earned long-term salaries. Wage dispersion in the Roman Empire was very similar to that of pre-industrial Europe, which seems very interesting due to the fact that slavery was such a prevalent force in the labor market. One important thing to note is that members of the Roman army did not affect the trends of the labor market even though they participated in some smaller jobs such as construction because they were stationed at the frontiers. Also in a functioning labor market, wages increase as the number of workers decrease and studies have shown that in the early Roman Empire, this statement was certainly true when the plague hit and put many people out of work. In summation, there is plenty of evidence to suggest the presence of a functioning labor market in Ancient Rome and as students of an economics course, the Ancient Appian Way is a very fascinating tourist destination because it suggests the importance of slaves to the labor market of the early Roman Empire.

Wine vs Cereals in Pompeii's Economy

When we went on our tour of Pompeii, one of the first things our guide said was that Pompeii's economy was built on wine and olive oil, but mostly wine. "It's ok, you can laugh, it's funny," she said. Indeed, in the ruins we could find a great number of amphoras, vessels used to store wine (among other liquids... some of which you would perhaps be better off not knowing).

However, the article I read goes against the common assertion that the people of Pompeii survived off of their grapes. Not only would this be difficult to sustain a densely populated city with, but the quality of the soil in Pompeii likely made the wine inferior to their neighbors, and thusly not capable of exporting the wine on a large scale.

Vesuvius overlooking the mostly-flat Pompeii

Pompeii had a population that could be estimated to be around 36,000, with up to a third of that population being in the densely packed urban city area. Although we may not consider this to be dense by modern standards, keep in mind that modern city standards are supported by skyscrapers of apartments, and back in the time of Pompeii houses were 2-3 stories on average. The outer city area did involve some slopes thanksVesuvius, but the majority of farmland in the region was plains. The article asserts that not only are cereals the most efficient way to feed large numbers of people, but plains are also the ideal soil type for cereal agriculture, whereas hills and slopes are better for vine plants.

We also know how Pompeii compared to other towns in the Campagnia region thanks to writers like Pliny. Depictions of Pompeii do describe the soil as being fertile, but this was also simply a literary mannerism of the time. What is perhaps more telling is writers like Pliny who describe that Pompeii has strong wine that would give you a headache the next day even if aged for 10 or more years, a distinct characteristic of wine grown in suboptimal soil conditions.

There is some archeological proof of a wine villa in Pompeii, but most villa excavations are a matter of being biased towards finding large elaborate sites, as opposed to more simple shelters for grain farmers. Some of the strongest evidence to Pompeii's wine economy has been the aforementioned amphoras, a large portion of which can be traced back to the Campagnia region. However, based on what is like the ancient equivalent of Yelp reviews, Surrentum wine was much more favored, and it is likely that many of those amphoras were nearby imports.

As for the cereals, who could Pompeii become rich on something so humble as cereal grains? The average grain production was likely enough to feed the population each year with some surplus for exporting. However, the article explains that "average" production almost never occurred for any agricultural communities. In years when production was low, grain could be imported from Rome. It was Pompeii's ideal proximity to Rome which was also to thank for their profit.

Although it might seem more fun on tours to think about an entire city rich from wine production, it is important to keep in mind that history is often exaggerated towards what seems more whimsical to us. However, the Pompeii citizens did not likely become wealthy on wine any more than Alec lives in an igloo.